Racism and the Cherokee Nation

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Racism and the Cherokee Nation

Written by William Loren Katz
Thursday, 08 March 2007

As President Bill Clinton and others arrived in Selma,
Alabama for the 42nd anniversary of the "Bloody
Sunday" march that prodded Congress to pass the 1965
Voting Rights Act, the Cherokee Nation chose a lower
road. It voted overwhelmingly for an amendment to
their constitution that revokes citizenship rights for
2,800 members because their ancestors included people
of African descent.

Marilyn Vann, president of the Descendants of Freedmen
of the Five Civilized Tribes, has long fought racism
from both governmental officials and indigenous
figures. In this instance, she claims, Cherokee
leaders misled voters by insisting "freedmen don't
have Indian blood," "the freedmen were forced on the
tribe," "the freedmen do not have a treaty right to
citizenship, " "the people have never voted on
citizenship provisions in the history of the tribe,"
and "the amendment will create an all Indian tribe."
Cherokee voters were also influenced by the racist
charge "that the freedmen if not ejected, would use up
all of the tribal service monies.”

The design of the amendment, Vann points out, is
patently discriminatory. It removes membership from
descendants of enrolled African Cherokees whose
documentation of Indian ancestry was affirmed by the
Dawes Commission more than a century ago as well as
those without documentation of Indian ancestry. On the
other hand it accepts Cherokee members with white
blood or even people whose ancestors are listed as
"adopted whites."

This development comes at a moment of re-examination
of African and Indian alliances that followed 1492.
Governor Nicolas de Ovando of Hispaniola arrived in
the Americas in 1502 with a Spanish armada that
carried the first enslaved Africans. Within a year,
Ovando wrote to King Ferdinand that the Africans "fled
to the Indians and never could be captured." To the
fury of Europeans, Native Americans, the first people
enslaved in the New World, accepted African runaways.
Indians saw no reason to face the invasion alone.

In their maroon colonies beyond the European
settlements that dotted the coastlines of the
Americas, each group contributed invaluable skills. As
victims of the triangular trade, Africans brought
their unique experience of European intentions,
weapons, and diplomacy. Native American villages
offered runaways a safe haven for families and a base
for operations, and allowed the two peoples to forge
the first "rainbow coalition.” So ubiquitous were
maroon communities that a French scholar called them
"the gangrene of colonial society." Seeing these
alternative societies as a threat to their hegemony,
Europeans repeatedly deployed search and destroy
armies.

British colonial officials in what is now the United
States required Indian Nations to sign treaties
promising the return of Black runaways. (There is no
record of any fugitives being returned!) To keep
Native American villages from becoming an escape
hatch, officials from Florida to Canada offered
Indians staggering rewards for runaways. And to that
same end, British traders introduced African slavery
to the Five Nations -- the Cherokees, Choctaws,
Chickasaws, Creeks and Seminoles. Once these Nations
adopted European-style dress, Christianity and African
bondage, they were called "The Five Civilized Tribes."
In Florida where the terrain permitted guerilla
warfare, African Seminoles played a commanding role in
a resistance that at times tied up half of the U.S.
Army, held the U.S. Military forces at bay from 1816
to 1858, took 1500 U.S. Military lives, and cost
Congress $30,000,000.

By Nat Turner's slave rebellion of 1831, southern
planters, frantic that leaks in their labor system
would have explosive consequences, joined with whites
seeking valuable Indian land, to demand removal of the
Five Nations. President Martin Van Buren had 7,000
U.S. Troops drive 60,000 Indians, including black
members, to distant Oklahoma. Thousands perished on
this “Trail of Tears,” Cherokees of both lineages
comforted one other.

Even before they reached Oklahoma African bondage
dominated the social, political and economic life of
the Five Nations, and created the class and racial
divisions evident today. A minority of Cherokees with
white blood owned slaves, claimed a superior status
and rose to leadership. “Pure Indian blood” Cherokees,
the majority, became “inferior.” African Cherokees,
slave and free, were relegated to the lowest rung.
However in the 1850s Heinrich Mollhausen, a noted
German artist, visited the Indian Territory and
described a form of bondage unlike any southern
plantation:

These slaves receive from the Indian masters more
Christian treatment than among the Christian whites.
The traveler may seek in vain for any other difference
between master and servant than such as nature had
made in the physical characteristics of the races; and
the Negro is regarded as a companion and helper, to
whom thanks and kindness are due when he exerts
himself for the welfare of the household.

In 1860 Cherokees in Oklahoma owned 2,511 slaves, and
at the outset of the Civil War, Cherokee leaders,
pressured by pro-slavery Indian Agents and virtually
surrounded by Confederate armies, agreed to support
the Confederacy. However, Opothle Yahola, a Creek
chief and pacifist, was able to lead 7,600 people --
including half of the Seminole Nation, Cherokees,
Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks and others, to Union
lines in Kansas. By April 1862 the young men of this
multicultural exodus had joined the Union Army and
helped free slaves in Missouri.

The defeat of the Confederacy allowed U.S. Officials
to scrap its Indian treaties. Whites who had forced
African slavery on Indians now demanded Indians accept
Lincoln's "new birth of freedom." The Seminoles, who
had long treated their African members as allies
rather than slaves, embraced equality. Cherokees
followed. African Cherokees soon ran barbershops,
blacksmith shops, general stores and restaurants or
became ferryboat operators, cotton-gin managers,
teachers and postmasters. O.S. Fox, editor of the
Cherokee Afro-American was enthusiastic:

The opportunities for our people in that country far
surpassed any of the kind possessed by our people in
the U.S. . . . It is nonsense for any Afro-American to
emigrate to Africa or anywhere else if he can make a
living in the Indian Territory.

In 1879 African Cherokees, petitioning for full
equality, based their appeal on a shared history:

The Cherokee nation is our country; there we were born
and reared; there are our homes made by the sweat or
our brows; there are our wives and children, whom we
love as dearly as though we were born with red,
instead of black skins. There we intend to live and
defend our natural rights, as guaranteed by the
treaties and laws of the United States, by every
legitimate and lawful means.

How ironic and sad that people of African Cherokee
lineage still have to fight for natural rights being
denied them by the New World's first victims of
virulent bigotry, imported by the European invaders.
____________ _________ _________ _________ _________ __
William Loren Katz is the author of BLACK INDIANS: A
HIDDEN HERITAGE and forty other books, and has been
associated with NYU for 35 years. His webwsite is:
WILLIAMLKATZ. COM

[aziza]

This is a really good article... Also most of the leaders of the Choctaw and Cherokee nations are descendants of the european men who infiltrated the tribes back when the tribes were forced to relocate to Oklahoma. They purposefully intermarried with the daughters of the Chiefs of the tribes so that they could then push their agendas and still keep control after slavery was abolished.

[aziza]

The article below deals with the Choctaw Nation and the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek. If you look at the info beside the names of those who benefited from this Treaty and received land grants, you will see most of them were white or married to whites and relatives to Chiefs. The descendants of these folks are now the power brokers and elite of the Nation.

[hr]

Politics of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek by Jennifer Mieirs

Probably the best book I have read on this subject is the book by Arthur H, De Rosier, Jr., titled "The Removal of the Choctaw Indians." The importance of understanding the politics of the removal, not just from the United States point of view, but from the Choctaw's as well, is imperative in successful research of your family in the area. Most of us, come from one of the handful of part Choctaw leaders, who were instrumental in the signing of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek. While the Choctaw had in fact ceded land for land in the Arkansas and Oklahoma territories with the Treaty of Doaks Stand, they were not required to relocate. Many in fact were against it. The next decade ensued much political maneuvering between different factions inside the nation, and different leaders. When David Folsom was elected chief of his district, Moshatubbe, who had been the leader through the traditional hereditary means, along with Nittakecchi, another full blooded, hereditary chief, almost went to war with the supporters of David Folsom. Accounts of this can be found in just about any book you read on the Choctaw that deals with the removal period. Greenwood Leflore, who had replaced Robert Cole, his great uncle, in Apuckanubbee's district, had secretly corresponded with the United States government (with their encouragement) stating he had enough supporters to relocate the tribe. In fact, he never intended to relocate himself. While he almost broke up the meeting at the treaty grounds, it was more from the decision that he could not pick or choose the twenty council members who would decide whether or not to ratify the treaty. The end result is that before negotiations were finished, many of the full bloods had left the area, and those who remained were offered bribes and enticements to ensure they would sign the treaty. The beneficiaries of those bribes are seen in the Supplement to the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek. Below is the Supplements, with some explanation of who benefited.


SUPPLEMENTARY ARTICLES TO THE PRECEDING TREATY

Various Choctaw persons have been presented by the Chiefs of the nation, with a desire that they might be provided for. Being particularly deserving, an earnestness has been manifested that provision might be made for them. It is therefore by the undersigned commissioners here assented to, with the understanding that they are to have no interest in the reservations which are directed and provided for under the general Treaty to which this is a supplement.
As evidence of the liberal and kind feelings of the President and Government of the United States the Commissioners agree to the request as follows, (to wit) Pierre Juzan, Peter Pitchlynn, G. W. Harkins, Jack Pitchlynn, Israel Fulsom, Louis Laflore, Benjamin James, Joel H. Nail, Hopoynjahubbee, Onorkubbee, Benjamin Laflore, Michael Laflore and Allen Yates and wife shall be entitled to a reservation of two sections of land each to include their improvement where they at present reside, with the exception of the three first named persons and Benjamin Laflore, who are authorized to locate one of their sections on any other unimproved and unoccupied land, within their respective districts.
ARTICLE 2. And to each of the following persons there is allowed a reservation of a section and a half of land, (to wit)


James L. McDonald
Robert Jones
Noah Wall White Man Husband of Lucretia Folsom
James Campbell Husband of Delite Delilah Folsom, More than likely White
G. Nelson Probably Garrett Nelson, son in law of Shumaka
Vaughn Brashears Son of Zadoc Brashears, Husband of Isabella Leflore, Part Choctaw
R. Harris, Probably Rubin Harris, Husband of Sylvia Leflore, More than likely White
Little Leader Full Choctaw, served in War of 1812 with Pushmataha
S. Foster Probably Samuel Foster, wife was Agnes Turnbull, White Man
J. Vaughn Probably son of Thomas Vaughn and Winifred, would be Part Choctaw
L. Durans Probably Lewis Durant, brother to John Folsom's Wife, Part Choctaw
Samuel Long White Man, Husband of Felicity Leflore
T. Magagha, Fullblood
Thos. Everge, Thomas Everidge, Husband of Eve Brashears, probably white man
Giles Thompson Husband of Charlotte Wall, (Noah Wall and Lucretia Folsom's daughter), more than likely White
Tomas Garland, ?? Is this Thomas Wall?
John Bond Husband of Rebecca Juzan, (Charles Juzan's daughter and related to Chief Pushmataha), probably white man
William Laflore Brother of Greenwood Leflore, married to Martha Walker (Creek) step daughter of Zadoc Brashears, part Choctaw
Turner Brashears Son of Zadoc Brashears, Part Choctaw

the two first named persons, may locate one section each, and one section jointly on any unimproved and unoccupied land, these not residing in the Nation; The others are to include their present residence and improvement.

Also one section is allowed to the following persons (to wit)


Middle-ton Mackey Eventually married Malina Folsom, probably White man
Wesley Train Wesley Trahern, Grandson of Zadoc Brashears, part Choctaw
Choclehomo, Probably Full Choctaw, someone who served in War 1812
Moses Foster,
D. W. Wall, David W. Wall, son of Noah Wall and Lucretia Folsom, shortly after marries Delilah Juzan, widow of Jesse Brashears, part Choctaw
Charles Scott
Molly Nail Widow of Joel Henry Nail, mother of Nail children, Choctaw
Susan Colbert, who was formerly Susan James, Daughter of Benjamin James, and ex-wife of Major James Colbert, a Chickasaw leader.
Samuel Garland White man,or mixed blood husband of Sylvia Leflore
Silas Fisher Somehow related to Fisher's who marry into Leflore family, ? White
D. McCurtain Probably Daniel McCurtain, husband of Hannah, Shomaka's daughter by a Choctaw
Oaklahoma, Former Chief of Six Town Clan, Brother to Nittakechi, Nephew of Pushmataha

and Polly Fillecuthey, Widow of Fillecuthey a choctaw warrior/leader, Choctaw, known as Polly Cravatt, most likely, half sister to Greenwood Lelfore, as only his mother and aunt are known to be children of John Jean Cravatt and Rebecca Cravaat, Shomaka's daughter, also known as Nahomtima.
(NOTE: I think this is the source of the name Fillecuthey for Oklahoma)
to be located in entire sections to include their present residence and improvement, with the exception of Molly. Nail and Susan Colbert, who are authorized to locate theirs, on any unimproved unoccupied land.
John Pitchlynn has long and faithfully served the nation in character of
U. States Interpreter, he has acted as such for forty years, in consideration
it is agreed, in addition to what has been done for him there shall be granted
to two of his children, (to wit) Silas Pitchlynn, and Thomas Pitchlynn one section of land each, to adjoin the location of their father;
likewise to James Madison and Peter sons of Mushulatubbee one section of land each to include the old house and improve-meat where their father formerly lived on the old military road adjoining
a large Prairie. King is a name that is associated with Moshatubbee's descendants. It is rumored, his daughter Kiamiachi was a wife of Nittakechi.

And to Henry Groves son of the Chief Natticache there is one section of land given to adjoin his father's land. Changed name to Henry Byington.
And to each of the following persons half a section of land is granted on any unoccupied and unimproved lands in the Districts where they respectively live (to wit)
Willis Harkins, Son of Louisa Leflore, marries Salina Folsom, Part Choctaw
James D. Hamilton,
William Juzan, Son of Charles Juzan, Part Choctaw, Related To Pushmataha
Tobias Laflore, Half Brother of Greenwood Leflore, Part Choctaw
Jo Doke,
Jacob Fulsom; Folsom and Nail descendant, part Choctaw
P. Hays,
Samuel Worcester; full blood
George Hunter,
William Train, William Trahern, Grandson of Zadoc Brashears, Part choctaw
Robert Nail Son of Joel Nail.
Alexander McKee.

And there is given a quarter section of land each

to Delila and her five fatherless children, she being a Choctaw woman residing out of the nation; This is not Delilah Juzan Brashears (her husband died in 1829), nor is it Delilah Brashears Trahern, who died about 1820. The names of the children on the land scrip are, Four daughters, Charity, Betsy, Susan and Sarah, and Joseph. A possible Delilah is Delita Delilah Folsom, who married James Campbell. The Delilah mentioned in the supplement is rumored to have had an affair with John Donly, and these are his children. Choctaw.
also the same quantity to Peggy Trihan, another Indian woman residing out of the nation and her two fatherless children Peggy Trahern, former wife of Charles Juzan, these "fatherless" children are the children of a Trahern, most likely the brother to Wesley Trahern who married Delilah Brashears. Choctaw.

and to the widows of Pushmilaha, One of Pushmataha's wives, and her two daughters and son, have a land scrip, the other, is rumored, but not proven to be the mother of Chamnay and Running Deer, and died 1830 or 1831. Choctaw.
and Pucktshenubbee, I have not found the land scrip for her, who were formerly distinguished Chiefs of the nation and for their children four quarter sections of land, each in trust for themselves and their children. All of said last mentioned reservations are to be located under and by direction of the President of the U. States.

ARTICLE 3. The Choctaw people now that they have ceded their lands are solicitous to get to their new homes early as possible and accordingly they wish that a party may be permitted to proceed this fall to ascertain whereabouts will be most advantageous for their people to be located.
It is therefore agreed that three or four persons (from each of the three districts) under the guidance of some discreet and well qualified person or persons may proceed during this fall to the West upon an examination of the country.
For their time and expenses the U. States agree to allow the said twelve persons two dollars a day each, not to exceed one hundred days, which is deemed to be ample time to make an examination.
If necessary, pilots acquainted with the country will be furnished when they arrive in the West.
ARTICLE 4. John Donly of Alabama who has several Choctaw grand children, and who for twenty years has carried the mail through the Choctaw Nation, a desire by the Chiefs is expressed that he may have a section of land, it is accordingly granted, to be located in one entire section, on any unimproved and unoccupied land.
Allen Glover and George S. Gaines licensed Traders in the Choctaw Nation, have accounts amounting to upwards of nine thousand dollars against the Indians who are unable to pay their said debts without distressing their families; a desire is expressed by the chiefs that two sections of land be set apart to be sold and the proceeds thereof to be applied toward the payment of the aforesaid debts. It is agreed that two sections of any unimproved and unoccupied land be granted to George S. Gaines who will sell the same for the best price he can obtain and apply the proceeds thereof to the credit of the Indians on their accounts due to the aforementioned Glover and Gaines, and shall make the application to the poorest Indian first.
At the earnest and particular request of Chief Greenwood Laflore there is granted to David Haley one half section of land to be located in a half section on any unoccupied and unimproved land as a compensation, for a journey to Washington City with dispatches to the Government and returning others to the Choctaw Nation.
The foregoing is entered into, as supplemental to the treaty concluded yesterday.
Done at Dancing Rabbitt creek the 28th day of September, 1830.
Jno. H. Eaton,
Jno. Coffee,
Greenwood Leflore,
Nittucachee, his x mark, Mushulatubbee, his x mark, Offahoomah, his x mark, Eyarhoeuttubbee, his x mark, Iyaeherhopia, his x mark, Holubbee, his x mark, Onarhubbee, his x mark, Robert Cole, his x mark, Hopiaunchahubbee, his x mark, David Folsom, John Garland, his x mark, Hopiahoomah, his x mark, Captain Thalko, his x mark, Pierre Juzan, Immarstarher, his x mark, Hoshimhamartar, his x mark,
In presence
E. Breathitt, Secretary to Commissioners, W. Ward, Agent for Choctaws, M. Mackey, United States Interpreter, John Pitchlynn, United States Interpreter, R.P. Currin, Jno. W. Byrn, Geo. S. Gaines.