SENUFO (SENOUFO, SIENA, SIENNA)
Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Mali
The Senufo number 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 and live in Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Burkina Faso, and the extreme south of Mali. They live principally off the fruits of agriculture and occasionally hunting. Senufo agriculture is typical of the region, including millet, sorghum, maize, rice, and yams. They also grow bananas, manioc, and a host of other crops that have been borrowed from cultures throughout the world. Small farm animals such as sheep, goats, chickens, guinea fowl, and dogs are raised. Minimal amounts of hunting and fishing also contribute to the local economy. Labor is divided between farmers and skilled artisans, and while it was once thought that these segments of society did not intermarry.
In addition to a belief in a creator deity, ancestors and nature spirits, a central concept in Senufo religion is a female ancestral spirit called "ancient mother" or "ancient woman," the sacred guiding spirit of each poro society. All adult men belong to the poro society, which maintains the continuity of religious and historical traditions, especially through the cult of the ancestors. The poro is the pillar of communal life. Responsible for initiation and training of the young boys, it is aimed at shaping an accomplished, social man who is integrated to the collective; it aids his entry into public responsibilities. A woman's association, the sandogo, in charge of divination, is responsible for contact with the bush spirit who might be bothered by the activities of the hunt, farming, or of artisans.
The Senufo produce a rich variety of sculptures, mainly associated with the poro society. The sculptors and metalsmiths, endogamous groups responsible for making the cult objects live on their own in a separate part of the village. The attitude shown toward them by other Senufo is a mixture of fear and respect, owing to their privileged relationship with the natural forces that they are capable of channeling in a sculpture.
During initiations, headpieces are worn that have a flat, vertical, round or rectangular board on top decorated with paint or pierced work. Many wood carvings of male figures depict these headpieces, sometimes on rhythm pounders used by young initiates, who beat the earth to call upon the ancestors to take part in the ceremony and purify the earth. The carvers also produce ritual female statues, including
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mother-and-child figures, as well as statuettes depicting bush spirits and supernatural beings and equestrian figures.
Large statues representing hornbills (often seen also on masks) and used in the lo society as symbols of fertility are the standing birds called porpianong. Figures of the hornbill are used in initiation, and groups of birds on a pole are trophies for the best farmer. Hornbills are noble birds; they mate for life, they share equally in the raising of their young who they protect by spreading their wings. They are depicted in their erect, protective stance. Figures of male and female twins and of horsemen are used in divination. These represent the spirit familiars enabling the divination process. The diviners themselves are women, forming the sandogo society. Shrine doors and drums are carved in relief, and small figures and ritual rings are cast in bronze.
Several types of mask are used depending upon the occasion. The kpelie, a human face with projections all around, is said to remind initiates of human imperfection. Danced by men, these masks perform as female characters. Animal-head masks usually combine characteristics of several creatures--hyena, warthog, and antelope. A type of animal mask called waniugo has a cup for a magical substance on top; these masks blow sparks from their muzzles in a nighttime ritual protecting the village from sorcerers. Among the Naffara group of the Senufo, masks of similar form but with an interior cavity too small for a human head are carried on the top corner of a rectangular, tent like costume called kagba. This mask is the symbol of the Lo, which only initiates may see. In the Korhogo region, deguele masks appear in pairs at funerals. They are of plain helmet shapes topped with figures whose bodies are carved to resemble a pile of rings.
Ceremonial bird
(porpianong).
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The Senufo style varies as widely as the tribe's geographic spread. In former times many of the men's secret Poro societies in the Senufo region owned a large standing sculpture of the bird. These statues kept in the sacred forest were used in the rites for the admission of initiates to the final phase of training. The identification of this bird is uncertain.
These statues are called kasingele, 'the first ancestor', which may refer either to the mythological founder of the human race or to the ancestral founder of the sacred forest. Its alternate name is porpianong, which means literally 'mother of the Poro child'. The statue is thus a primary symbol of the Poro leadership, indicating the authority of its elders.
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The Senufo produce a rich variety of sculptures, mainly associated with the Poro society, to which adult men belong and which maintains the continuity of religious and historical traditions, especially through the cult of the ancestors. They have a vital masquerading tradition associated with various male societies, including Poro. Pounders made from a single piece of wood on a circular base are used to provide the rhythm for a dance in the Lo society. Such implements are also used to invoke the spirits of the ancestors, especially at agricultural ceremonies.
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Senufo Divination Practices
the Sandogo Society
This discussion on divination has been included in relation to the Senufo container and lid, as it may be possible that they are associated in some way with divination.
Furthermore, the Sandogo Society is an integral part of the Senufo culture. (https://www.abibitumikasa.com/proxy.php?request=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arcc.ku.edu%2FKmt%2FSenufo%2520divination%2520container%2FSenufoContainer_files%2Fimage004.gif&hash=02ece44927257a6d57d8fabfbb28b9777cccc985)
In order to understand the importance of the Sandogo Society and the divination practices and rituals that are performed by its members, one must first be familiar with the Senufo world view. For the Senufo, the distinction between the village and the bush is of great importance. The village is ruled by culture and the proper behavior of its inhabitants.The bush, on the other hand, represents the wild or the unknown and is the dwelling place of the bush spirits. Boundaries between the village and the bush are not clearly established; therefore, the two zones overlap along the outskirts of the fields around the village. The boundaries of the bush are also believed to shift closer during the night, making is possible for the bush spirits to enter the village (Veirman 147).
In the supernatural hierarchy of the Senufo, the Supreme Being, Kolocoloo, holds the position of utmost importance. Kolocoloo has both a male and female component, the latter being named Kaceleeo or Maleeo (according to dialect). The male aspect of this being refers to his divine wisdom and power, while the female component embodies the elements of nurturing, protectiveness, education and judgment.
This Supreme Being/Ancient Mother is essentially inaccessible to humankind, and is very rarely represented through either image or oral tradition. The spiritual hierarchy beneath Kolocoloo is followed by the ancestors and then the bush spirits, or madebele (Veirman 147). The madebele are the most prominent theme in Senufo ornamentation, decorative arts, and sculpture.
These beings are bush spirits who act as messengers between humankind and the spirit world. They are therefore considered the most human-like of the spiritual beings, living in organized communities (complete with Poro), having families, and enjoying music, dance and ornamentation. They are particularly hot headed and are quick to retaliate when a human happens to offend them. While they are certainly not viewed as evil spirits or witches ( dëëbele), the Senufo are wary of the madebele, as they are known for their malevolent nature (Glaze 65). They are also likely to be fickle, untrustworthy and sly, constantly harassing humans to satisfy their ironic sense of humor (Veirman149). However, if appealed to in the correct manner, the madebele can be gracious and helpful (Glaze 65).
According to Ouattara, a Senufo historian, the strained relationship between humankind and the madebele has existed since mythical times and is rooted in the Creation Story:
The madebele, alongside the primordial animals, were the first inhabitants of the earth. They learned a great deal from Kolocoloo and soon became desirous of possessing equal power. The Supreme Being punished this insurgence by declaring that, upon death, the souls of the madebele would remain on earth as invisible spirits. He then created the first human couple so that they might rule over the madebele and other worldly creatures. Having the favor of Kolocoloo, the humans were able to prosper and multiply, despite the constant sufferings inflicted by the enraged madebele. Eventually the humans spread over such an area that the madebele were forced into the bush, where they died and became invisible to man. Because the madebele and humans did live together for some time, it is often said that many important aspects of the Senufo culture were learned from the madebele (Veirman 149).
Although the madebele seem somewhat resigned to their relegation to the bush, they are far from powerless. The people presume that these spirits are responsible for most misfortunes, ranging from minor setbacks to severe illness and even death. These misfortunes are thought to occur when an individual has offended a spiritual being such as a bush spirit, ancestor, or one of the other spirits occupying the bush. Offenses are often unintentional and are rather difficult to avoid, as the Senufo are farmers and are therefore constantly encroaching on madebeleterritory (Glaze 65). The Sandobele, or members of the Sandogo Society, are charged with the task of helping to restore the balance between the madebele and the human that offended him/her (Veirman 146).A Sando (the singular form of Sandobele) may also be petitioned to help prevent committing offenses. This is particularly important for farmers, who, under the direction of a Sando, will appeal to the madebele prior to cultivating or harvesting a certain plot of land (Glaze 65).
The Sandogo Society is the female equivalent to the male Poro Society (discussed in the text on Senufo culture). Membership is hereditary through the female line, with each lineage selecting two members for initiation. The Sandogo Society is responsible for keeping the several matrilineages of the community pure. As marriages and kinships are established and upheld through matrilineal descent, the maintenance of these orders is imperative to the community.The term "Sandogo" refers to the moral code established by the ancestors that all members of a lineage are expected to follow. Violations of Sandogo tend to result in very serious consequences, for they incite the wrath of the ancestors.
In addition to upholding the order of the matrilineages, the Sandogo Society trains women to be diviners. Because the divination rituals and processes are so complex, a very few number of initiates will actually become practicing diviners. Although it is rare, men may become diviners as well. If a man commits a serious wrong to a madebele, that spirit may pursue him mercilessly and demand that the man devote himself as a diviner. In the case of such an occurrence, a Sando will initiate the man in the practices of Sandogo divination (Veirman 146). These male Sandobele are not necessarily admitted into the Society proper; however it is possible for him to become a member if one of his lineage's two positions in the Society should fall vacant (Veirman 163).
In order to appeal to an offended spirit and ease the suffering of a client, a Sando invokes "her" madebele. These spiritual helpers are bush spirits (usually a male/female pair) with whom the diviner has established a long-standing and carefully maintained bond (Veirman 150). During a consultation session, a Sando sits on the ground facing her client, with her madebele statues placed in front of her.
These statues are designed as representations of the diviner's madebele, and help lure them to her during a session. After calling the madebele to her with a short musical piece, the Sando takes the hand of her client and begins her interrogation. She begins by asking questions to determine the reason that the client has requested a session. The client does not reveal this information initially because this process
provides an indication of the madebele's willingness to cooperate (Veirman 154). The mediary role of the madebele varies slightly across different Senufo groups;however, it is generally accepted that if they are willing to communicate, they will relay the information to the Python (Fo). Fo is one of the five primordial animals that shared the earth with the madebele before humans, and he is an extremely important being for diviners, as he acts as a conduit for communication between the madebele and the higher forms of spiritual beings (Visona 147). The madebele then return to the diviner and answer her questions by forcing her hands to jerk with specific movements signifying "yes" and "no." Hesitation and uncertainty can also be detected by slowed response time and lingering movements. Upon discovering the problem itself, the Sando seeks further details involving the cause of the misfortune (sorcery, offense, etc) and what the
client is expected to do in order to rectify the problematic situation (Veirman 154-155).
The madebele determine the best course of action and then direct the diviner's hand to an object in her divination kit, which includes castings, stones, bones, cowry shells and other assorted objects (Visona 147).The Sando interprets the chosen item and advises the client on how to resolve the problem. Oftentimes, small gifts and sacrifices will be demanded by the madebele as a suitable form of compensation for offense.The Sando may also prescribe the client to wear specially designed amulets, ornamentations or textiles in order to balance a conflict with a bush spirit, as the spirits value beautiful things (Veirman 154-155).
Some diviners are more successful than others and may even obtain widespread renown. The status of a Sando is evidenced by the decoration of her consultation room, the quality of her divination figurines, and the variety of objects in her divination kit (Veirman 152). An equestrian figure, for example, is an object that only an experienced and successful diviner would be able to afford having in her kit.
In Senufo culture, equestrian figures represent power and wealth, both of which are associated with a successful Sando. The Senufo people attribute great importance to the delicate relationship between themselves and the spiritual world. In fact, if a person suffers a misfortune and fails to arrange a consultation session with a diviner, that individual's family and community will then hold him/her responsible for the situation. The same concept is applied to anyone whose misfortunes persist because they did not follow the advice of the diviner (Glaze 65).This phenomenon not only implies that the Sandobele are held in high esteem as advisors, but also confirms that they provide an invaluable service to others as communicators with the spiritual realm.
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