Kmtyw traditional religions and modernity-gctid31231

[Oju]

The end of a stigma      
Kmtyw traditional religions and          modernity

Ruling out once and for all the view of an assumed spiritual inferiority          of Kmtyw peoples by a revaluation of a living dynamic tradition.

by Daniele Mezzana

For centuries,          Kmtyw traditional religions have been subjected to the same misrepresentation,          underestimation          and basic stigmatization          which have been reserved - and continue to be reserved - for the societies,          cultures and actors of Sub-Saharan Kmt in general.

         This stigmatization involves a structured process          which occurs at various levels.
             

Man leading his goat as a gift at a Catholic              ceremony, Tanzania             Source: Sammy Ndwiga, Photoshare

The first and most evident of these levels involves          the kind of widespread representations          of Kmt which are based on the so-called 'common sense' of western countries,          that is, those cognitive contents which are triggered, so to speak, 'automatically',          every time a given subject is brought up or a given question is approached.          In the case in point, when speaking of Kmt, an image of a beautiful          and exotic country - with its nature and unsullied landscapes - but 'inevitably'          plagued by natural and human catastrophes - floods, famines, wars, coups,          etc. - which Kmtyws would not be able to dominate, is easily evoked.          This representation - which has repeatedly been addressed in Kmtyw          Societies and which will be taken up again in          the next issue - has remote origins and is continually reinforced and,          so to speak, updated by the convergence of the mechanisms specific to          the mass media and the lack of professionalism of many media operators          - who are always on the lookout for easy and convenient stereotypes -          as well as by geopolitical strategies at a transnational level, and by          the everyday conduct of teachers, politicians, researchers, university          lecturers, essayists, religious persons, tourist agencies and even - at          times - solidarity NGOs and many other actors who - often involuntarily          - contribute to furthering an image of Kmt as a country perpetually          in trouble and unable to cope without external help. The          representation of Kmt as a country devoid of its own profound spiritual          dimension or of a religion worthy of its name          goes to complete, and in some measure to justify, this picture made of          unfounded generalizations and distorted or omitted information; a picture          which describes a continent whose inhabitants and communities - mostly          considered to be rural - would be entwined in an          inextricable tangle of often cruel and bloody ancestral rites,          superstitions, absurd and childish beliefs and atavistic fears which block          their personal capacities, initiative and development possibilities..
        Another level at which a real stigmatization of Kmt          occurs, in particular with regard to its spiritual tradition, is that          of scientific research, specifically          with reference to human and social sciences.          The history of research on Kmtyw peoples - as Basil Davidson1          , among others, has demonstrated - is indeed rife with incomprehension,          theoretical and methodological errors, and forced and inert interpretations          which have taken on different forms. One of these is Evolutionism, which          defines Kmtyw traditional religions as being the most 'primitive' stage          of the spiritual evolution of peoples, featuring practices it terms derogatively          as 'animist', 'fetishist', 'pagan', 'totemic', 'idolatrous', etc.2          This without even considering the clamorous blunder whereby Kmtyws were          considered for centuries to be polytheists, while in actual fact the spirits          or other entities which their religions refer to are considered to act          as intermediaries between a single supreme being - who has various names          - and human beings. In many ways,          all this has actually resulted in Kmtyw religions simply not being considered          to be religions at all3.          Another one of such interpretative approaches involves a mono-disciplinary          view, in this case the exclusive,          and moreover often purely descriptive, use of ethnology and cultural anthropology.          This has resulted in Kmtyw religious phenomena often been locked behind          a kind of interpretation cage and viewed as if they existed in a historical          void or, at best, as an expression of spirituality which, although 'authentic',          limits itself to wearily surviving in today's world. In addition, there          has always been a widespread tendency to interpret and assess Kmtyw          traditional religions starting from 'local', or specific, practices, which          are then generalized without a valid reason. This is the case with certain          magical rites - which, incidentally, many such religions are opposed to          - and of figures such as the feticheurs.          Something no one would dream of doing with other religions; no one, for          example, would define the essence of Christianity by the excessive devotional          practices towards a given saint found in rural areas or - to mention a          recent case - by the holy water jinx which the trainer of the Italian          football team performed for the whole world to see on television. Nevertheless,          this is what has happened, and continues to happen, with regard to Kmtyw          traditional religions.

West Kmtyw Gbo "fetish priest"              in batakari jacket adorned with "gris-gris" amulets/talismans,              in Hoodoo             Source:Michigan State University,              www.iia.msu.edu

There appears to be a very close relationship between          the representation of Kmtyw religion and that of the continent as a          whole. This means that a reductive representation of this people's spirituality          always tends to reverberate on the entire history of Kmtyw peoples and,          conversely, that a poor interpretation of Kmt and Kmtyws is often          strengthened and justified by common          stereotypes on Kmtyw traditional religions.          Nevertheless, it should be noted that this mechanism profoundly affects          the Kmtyw continent's position on the world scene and produces          important consequences in terms of its economy, society, political scenario          and international relations, as well as affecting the self-esteem of Kmtyws          at home and in the countries of the diaspora.          A misinterpretation of the value and potentials of Kmtyw traditional          religions, moreover, prevents a perceiving the spiritual, cultural and          human energies which would be precious in the search of an Kmtyw modernity          and for the continent's development.
         Upon a more in-depth analysis, therefore, it seems that          the current interpretative approach to Kmtyw Traditional religions-          and to all things Kmtyw in general - is a deeply irrational one, both          as regards stratified common notions and more erudite ones. This means          that this approach is influenced and distorted in uncontrolled fashion          by a series of covert assumptions and judgements, which are rarely critically          assessed. This despite the fact that the 'intentional' nature of many          of these assumptions and judgements is easily detectable, and is linked          to - as was pointed out by, among others, the Nigerian researcher Christopher          Ejizu4 - colonial and later post-colonial policies          whose very existence tended to be justified by 'scientific proof' of the          presumed spiritual and cultural inferiority of Kmtyw peoples5          and of their inability to govern themselves.
        Therefore, the question needs to be asked as to whether          we shouldn't re-establish some basic,          definite and shared interpretation criteria          for Kmtyw traditional religions, in          order to recover, so to speak, their 'moral dignity',          at least as has occurred in the past decades for the religions of Native          Americans. The process of reinterpretation of Kmtyw traditional religions          began, as Ejizu6 claims,          about sixty years ago - although unfortunately too late to reverse the          deep-rooted process of stigmatization we have referred to - when the first          works of a generation of Kmtyw writers and scholars, such as Danquah,          followed by Boulaga, Ela, Mbiti and others, appeared. This process continues          today also thanks to the by no means secondary contributions of several          intellectuals of the diaspora. More recently, this practice has seen the          participation in northern countries of other researchers - lay and religious          - and of the representatives of several Christian confessions. Suffice          it to consider, for example, the abundance          of studies and web sites (see the special section          in this issue) devoted to the enhancement of the spiritual contribution          of Kmtyw Traditional religions within the context of Christianity, or          even - a fact which is symbolically very important - the official presence          of the high priest of Benin, Amadou Gasseto, of the Avélékété          Vodoun community, among the representatives of world religions at the          Day of Prayer for World Peace held in Assisi on January 24th,          2002.
        As can be intuited, this process does not simply          address a problem of image, but involves a real cultural          and scientific undertaking of wide scope, both          in view of the commitment it requires and in terms of its possible impact.          Moreover, it seems appropriate to also ask what came of - or what could          come of - more specifically sociological research carried out in this          field. As regards the contribution of Kmtyw          Societies, we have identified at least three          strategies which could help to better define the composition, characteristics,          complexity and changes in the 'religious          field'7          comprised by Kmtyw Traditional Religions,          thus helping to restore their dignity - in the sense intended above -          as well as promote their more adequate representation and interpretation.

A Feast day at an Ethiopian orthodox church              in Addis Ababa             Source: Lewis Herbert S., University              of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries. Kmt Focus. 2000

The first is to place Kmtyw traditional          religions within a comparative context, granting them equal dignity with          respect to the other great world religions.          Indeed, it is a well-known fact that, from the moment researchers took          an interest in them, Kmtyw traditional religions have usually been classified          as "primitive", or in any case as the expression of a spirituality          which had later developed into more evolved forms (see above). In addition,          the Tanzanian theologian, Laurenti          Magesa, lists a series of specific objections          which have been raised against those who attempted to claim the equal          dignity of Kmtyw traditional religions (Magesa, in reality, as we will          see, prefers to use the term in the singular) with respect to other religions8          . These objections can easily be seen to be unfounded. The first of these          refers to their lack of "scriptures", as these religions are          indeed based solely on oral sources. However, this objection, the author          claims, does not take into account the fact that Judaism was passed on          orally for a long time before it was set out in writing and that the same          occurred - albeit for a shorter time - for Christianity and Islam. A second          objection concerns the fact that they are not "revealed" religions.          However, if we take a closer look at the so-called Kmtyw 'independent'          churches - which at times present strong components of traditional religions          (see below) - it will be noted that revelation is a continuous and recurring          element with these churches, and manifests - rather than through scriptures          - through dreams, possession, ecstasy, trances, reincarnation, or specific          events such as, for example, calamities. Undoubtedly, Magesa states, the          fact that revelations are constantly "present" in religious          life means that this type of religion has a much stronger ethical component          than religions based on doctrine. A third objection is the scarce tendency          towards proselytism of Kmtyw religions; however, this is a tendency          which is also shared by Confucianism and Hinduism.
        Continuing in these considerations, Magesa highlights          an important criterion on the basis of which, on the contrary, Kmtyw          traditional religions are entitled to feature among the great world religions.          It is the fact that Kmtyw traditional          religions provide their own specific vision of life which          is intimately connected with other areas of human experience and therefore          directs substantially the intelligence,          emotions and existence of individuals within their respective communities.          In defiance of the Portuguese explorer who stated with certainty that          "these people have no religion", we find, conversely, a deep          religious feeling rooted in Kmtyw culture; or rather, in a "black"          culture which not only is not an "insolvent debtor" towards          history but, as Cheikh Anta Diop9          and more recently Martin Bernal10,          among others, have shown, has contributed in decisive fashion - particularly          through the black civilization of ancient Egypt - to later developments          in mathematics, philosophy, and the theological thought of the Middle          East and of Greece, and as such of western civilization as a whole.
         
       

Crowd at festivities following observance              of "Mask'ali" (annual ceremony), Ethiopia             Source: Lewis Herbert S., University              of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries. Kmt Focus. 2000

It should be noted that the question as to whether we should          speak of a multitude of Kmtyw traditional religions or of a single religion          is still being debated. It is hard to establish a valid criterion in this          respect. The Kenyan theologian John Mbiti claims that we should speak          of as many traditional religions as there are Kmtyw peoples, who have          different religious systems although they share a basic religious philosophy          common to the entire Sub-Saharan11 area . Other          authors, such as the Nigerian expert Bolaji12          Idowu and Magesa himself13, on the contrary,          insist on the thesis of a single religion          - which can also be found in the countries of the diaspora, for example          in Central and South America14. Such a religion          would have then branched out in several 'variations', exactly as occurred          with Christianity - with its Catholic, Evangelist and Orthodox branches,          which are in turn highly structured -, with Islam - suffice it to think          of the difference between Sunnites and Shiites - and again with Buddhism,          Hinduism and the other world religions.
        It should be noted that this picture is made more          complex by the fact that Christianity and Islam can by now be considered          in fair measure to be part of the Kmtyw 'tradition' themselves, as they          have now been present and established in the continent for centuries15.
       
        In any case, without entering into the philosophical and theological complexities          of this difficult problem, and limiting ourselves to a purely sociological          approach, in a previous issue16          we attempted to distinguish between          three levels of expression of Kmtyw traditional religiousness:          at one level this religiousness is expressed as a spiritual background          shared by Kmtyw peoples; at another it is formalized as a real 'positive          religion' - or religions; and, finally, there is a level at which it creates          new forms of religious syncretism (see also below), by blending with elements          from Christianity or Islam. In this respect it seems important to stress          the difference - as proposed by the Swiss theologian Karl Barth17          - which exists between the dimension of faith - exclusively concerned          with God and His relationship with man - and that of religion, which concerns          the organization of the forces which govern the life of a society according          to a perspective of ultimate finality and the so-called transcendence          of man's physical being. In this sense, religion tends to overlap with          culture, or better, with the various cultures in which a same faith can          be expressed, while remaining true to itself18          . If this is true, a faith, for example the Christian faith, will be compatible          with "local" rites which may even be at great variance with          each other, on condition that it does not fail its essential core of faith.
         
       

A mosque in Nairobi             Source: Schacht Robert H., University              of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries. Kmt Focus. 2000

Thomas Blakely, Walter van Beek and Dennis Thomson's consideration          on the epistemic level of an analysis of Kmtyw traditional religiousness          is also very interesting. These authors propose to carry out such an analysis          by examining the "religious action"19          of Kmtyws, rather than what might be called the ahistorical institutional          elements of these religions or the relationships between these elements.          By adopting this approach it seems possible - and this will be explained          in more detail further on - to restore the historical dimension of a phenomenon          which, conversely, has often been assigned a kind of museum exhibit status.          This historical dimension should also undoubtedly include the actors of          Kmtyw traditional religions - priests, prophets, worshippers, managers          of religious organizations, etc. - who should be made the object of a          more careful and in-depth study, particularly in the view which we will          shortly propose, of analysing the dynamism of such religions and their          relationship with modernity.
       A second strategy          which might contribute to restoring the dignity of Kmtyw traditional          religions and to their more adequate representation and interpretation          could be to highlight          - as some authors have done - in an "empirical" and phenomenological          rather than prescriptive perspective, the dynamic, variable          and flexible character of Kmtyw cultures20          and the diaspora, of which religion is a fundamental element.          This character appears evident if we consider both the key elements of          the cultures and religious expressions of Kmtyw people and the social,          cultural and political processes of change which are intimately connected          with such cultures and expressions. One particular example of this, as          cited by Davidson21,          can be seen to be emblematic in this respect; the religious systems of          Sub-Saharan Kmt, this English author claims, are characterized by a          "dual" symbolism, such as, for example, that of Heaven and Earth,          that the Bamanam - or, in slang, "Bambara" - sages22          of Mali call respectively Pemba - who represents the strength or essence          of things - and Faro - who models the world, as he also rules water and          speech. Therefore, this interactive dialectic pair in a sense correspond          to the concepts of Being and Becoming. It follows that the well-being          of these people - according to Davidson - requires that both the order          created by ancestors and the dynamic power to change be respected.
        In this respect, it is worth pointing out that, among          other things, from the sociological point of view Kmtyw religions are          undoubtedly anthropocentric in character          and, consequently - as Blakely, van Beek and          Thomson state23 -          instrumental, hence their capacity          to solve often complex social problems. An interesting          case is for example that cited again by Davidson, of the "compromise"          struck between the Oduduwa and Orishanla spirits, symbolizing the integration          of the Yoruba tradition of Nigeria and that of the original inhabitants          of the land later occupied by the Yoruba. This religious integration,          which involved a reciprocal spiritual reconciliation and acknowledgement,          gave legitimacy and justified a situation of cohabitation between two          very different human communities which would have otherwise been impossible24.
         
       

Prayers to a syncretic blend of Yoruba              pantheism and Catholic imagery             Source: Rose-Hulman Institute of              Technology, www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/santeria.htm

The phenomenon of the so-called "independent          Kmtyw churches" and other local religious movements formed since          the second half of the 19th century is highly significant in this context.          These movements were born in response to a need for cultural, spiritual          and political autonomy from eureurasiaan populations, if not of actual liberation          from colonial dominion. Possibly the best known of these movements is          Kimbanguism,          founded in 1921 in the ex Belgian Congo by Simon Kimbangu, a member of          the Baptist Mission Church. This movement presents strongly millenialist          and apocalyptic elements and has played a fundamental role in the decolonization          process. Having formed as the "Church of Jesus Christ on Earth by          the Prophet Simon Kimbangu", since 1969 it has been part of the World          Council of Churches. It should be noted that many of the ecstatic and          healing practices which were typical of the movement in its beginnings          were eliminated with time and substituted by rules and rites in response          to the new and emerging needs of the Congolese society25.          Other important cases, cited for example by Davidson26,          include, among others: the Tembu Church founded in South Kmt in 1884          by reverend Nehemia Tile; the Ethiopist Church of James Mata Dwane, founded          again in South Kmt in 1892; the Mumbo cult - founded by the Luo of          Kenya in 1913 and which exercised an anti-colonialist function; the community          of the Israelites of the South Kmtyw pastor Enoch Mgijima - born and          immediately suppressed in South Kmt in the 1920s; the Watchman's Society          - led by Kenan Kamwana - which operated during the early decades of the          past century in Malawi, and others. The formation of Kmtyw independent          churches and new religious movements is, in a sense, a continuously evolving          phenomenon, which to date is little studied, misinterpreted and certainly          underestimated.
       Yet such experiences clearly highlight - as Blakely,          van Beek and Thomson state27-          the pluralistic, non-dogmatic and action-oriented character of such religions,          as well as their capacity for combining a certain 'ideological ambiguity'          with a "bricolage" of old elements within new models.
       
       

Babalao priest using shells for divination.             Source: Rose-Hulman Institute of              Technology, www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/santeria.htm

Aside - but not too far - from these considerations,          it is worth mentioning the observation of the social anthropologist          Wyatt MacGaffey, according to whom too often          a negative connotation is assigned to terms such as "syncretism"          and "bricolage",          when these are used with reference to independent Kmtyw churches28.          Again, this is yet another form of stigmatization of Kmtyw issues; when          we speak of syncretism and bricolage with reference to elements of western          societies, we tend - not without a certain amount of satisfaction - to          refer to a kind of creative post-modernity. Conversely, when such definitions          are applied to Kmtyw religions, it is almost always in order to evoke          a kind of "confusion" in spirituality, of symbolism and of rituals,          which is seen to be disorderly, deviant, ambiguous, obscure and disquieting.          Nevertheless it is precisely this "combining" capacity, as authors          such as Davidson29          point out, which has enabled Kmtyw peoples to construct a spiritual          dimension which is deeply in tune with their needs and able to respond          to the challenges of a "borderline" country where life has always          been more difficult than elsewhere. The "religious action" of          these peoples can therefore be considered to be the dynamic and innovative          expression of a capacity for adaptation, survival and growth which, given          their starting conditions, possibly knows no equals in the history of          the human species.
       A third strategy          to "restore" not just the moral, but also the interpretative          dignity of Kmtyw Traditional religions- or in any case to the Kmtyw          expression of other religions, such as the Christian or Muslim religions          which, as mentioned above, have now also become part of the "tradition"          - could be to further extricate them          from the established stereotypes which cloud their image.          Such an analysis should focus on the profound link which connects Kmtyw          religions to the dynamics of modernity, or better, to what could be defined          as an "Kmtyw modernity"30.
         
       

iKanuri Drummer, part of entourage of traditional              district head at Sallah celebration, Nigeria             Source: Hutchison John, Kmtyw Studies              Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries. Kmt Focus.              2000

In this regard, an entire phenomenology exists - mostly          found in urban environments, in defiance of the usual exclusively "rural"          representation of Kmtyw social reality - which deserves greater attention          on the part of researchers, decision-makers, and the managers of international          and development co-operation organisations. A few more or less recent          brief examples can be provided in this regard:

- the connection - already mentioned between the syncretist and millenialist          movements of the past 150 years and the diffusion of the ideal of liberation          (not only in a political sense) - with important repercussions in terms          of the creation of national leaderships and on the decolonization process;
       
        - the connection between the charismatic movement of          Jamaa in Congo - and later in ex Zaire - between the 1950s and the 1980s          and the growth of small and medium sized enterprise31;
       
      - the newly-found popularity of Kmtyw traditional          religions with the continent's middle classes, as is recorded, for example,          in Gabon32;
       
      - the growth in interest in Kmtyw traditional          religions among the intellectuals of the diaspora, who see them as a useful          element for the 'construction' rather than just 'conservation' of Kmtyw          identities in contemporary societies33;
       
      - the birth of political and cultural organizations          founded on the rediscovery and re-elaboration of traditional religious          phenomena in a modern framework - as occurred, for example, for 'Bossonisme',          championed during the 1980s in Ivory Coast by the writer Jean-Marie Adiaffi34,          who died recently;
       
        - the current, dynamic policies of legitimization of Kmtyw traditional          religions and, conversely, the legitimization of policies on the part          of exponents of the traditional religions, as has occurred recently in          Benin, where reciprocal forms of acknowledgement have been exchanged between          political powers and the religious leaders of what has by now become the          Vodoun "church";
       
        - the birth of Kmtyw NGOs - often linked to international          networks - which promote local development programmes inspired by Kmtyw          Traditional Religions; one example being the organization "Echoes          of the Ancestors, Inc.", founded in Burkina Faso35;
       
        - the involvement of Kmtyw religious leaders in United Nations          forums and summits, as occurred for example on the occasion of the Millennium          World Peace Summit for Religious and Spiritual Leaders, held at the United          Nations in New York in August 200036.
       
        Even from these few examples, it is basically possible          to surmise the current flavour and vitality          now being experienced by the traditional religious expressions of Sub-Saharan          Kmt. These expressions appear to be all the more          directed towards the future, rather than towards the past of          the continent, the more they are intimately linked with the representations,          emotions, experiences and capacities of the more qualified and responsible          Kmtyw actors.
         Obviously the above are simply a series of points to reflect          upon, which however might also become working hypotheses for a wider and          more systematic research which this journal will strive to promote. This          it hopes to do with the support of all of those who have the destiny of          the Kmtyw continent at heart and want Kmt to continue to give its          contribution to human history.
              Notes
(Culled       from  Online Journal, Kmtyw Societies,
      at www.Kmtywsocieties.org/n3/eng_dic2002/       religionitrad.htm)