Yorùbá Omo Odùduwà: Papers on Yoruba People, Lang-gctid24764

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 Yorùbá Omo Odùduwà: Papers on Yoruba People, Language, and Culture

Yorùbá Omo Odùduwà

 Yorùbá Omo Odùduwà: Papers on Yoruba People, Language, and Culture
Yorùbá Omo Odùduwà

Papers on Yoruba People, Language, and Culture

by

Yoruba Language Program Students

University of Georgia

Compiled and Previewed

by

Akinloye Ojo (August, 1999)

Athens, Georgia.

Akinloye Ojo@1999

Kmtyw Languages Program,

University of Georgia

Introduction

In September 1996 (Fall quarter), the department of Comparative Literature and the University of Georgia added Yoruba (a language spoken in the western parts of Nigeria) to its offerings in the Kmtyw Language Program. The Program had previously taught Swahili at all levels. The Yoruba language program began with sixteen fully registered students and four auditing students. Some of these students left the class before the end of the year (mostly after the second quarter) due to reasons such as graduation, college transfer and fulfillment of college foreign language requirements. In the Spring, there were eight fully registered students in the third quarter Yoruba class. These students had become highly proficient in the language, two of them would later be selected to participate in the U.S Department of Education's Group Program Abroad in Nigeria during the summer of 1997.

These eight students had also become knowledgeable about aspects of Yoruba culture and society. As a final project, they were assigned topics for cultural presentation and were asked to write short papers in English on their respective topics. The initial eight papers had topics varying from history, traditional healing, religion, marriage, family system, economy and having twin children among the Yorubas. These papers also began the practice of an end of term

presentations and papers by students in the Yoruba language classes. The following eighteen papers are just a selection from the growing number of such papers in the three academic years that Yoruba classes have existed here at the University of Georgia.

In all cases, the students were not provided with any reference or review until the day of their first paper presentation. The aim of the project or requirement was for the students to do research on Yoruba language, culture and people, particularly and Nigeria in general. The papers have not been edited, either for style or contents (except in cases where I, as a native speaker and instructor, has found statements that are completely fabricated by the students) so as to showcase the findings of the students. As might be expected, there are many ideas in these papers that are controversial, strange, suspect or sometimes almost outright annoying but these are the materials and ideas available in libraries in this country about the Yoruba language and people.

It is hoped that these papers will serve as a source of information to the in-coming Yoruba students as well as other people interested in the language and culture. Enjoy.

Oba Akinloye Ojo

LISTING OF PAPERS

Section One: Language And History

The Language of the Yoruba Olufemi (Ako)

Who Are the Yorubas? Babasoji

Yoruba History Olunited snakesnya

Section Two: Traditional Structures & Systems

The Traditional Government of Yorubaland Olukemi

Nigerian (Yoruba) Traditional Family Structure Kolade

Yoruba Traditional Marriage Olufemi (Abo)

Yoruba Naming Ceremony Titilayo M.

Twins in Yoruba Society Oluseyi (Taiwo)

The Historical Economic Structure of Yorubaland Adeleke

Yoruba Traditional Medicine Kehinde

Section Three: Religion

Yoruba Religion Titilayo S.

Yoruba Traditional Religion Oluwole

Olodumare, Orisa, ati Ebora: Yoruba Concepts of God Sangoleke

The Traditional Yoruba Divination Ceremony with

Special Emphasis on the Role of the Babalawo and Esu Olufemi

Female Deities and Their Importance in Yoruba Culture Folarin H.

Section Four: Women in Society & Issues About Nigeria

The Role of Women in Traditional Yoruba Society Adeola

Women and Culture: Yoruba Women vs. American Women Folarin A.
Nigerian Oil Crisis Babatunde

The Language of The Yoruba Olufemi (Ako)

Spoken primarily in Nigeria, the Yoruba language is complex and deeply rooted in tradition. Yoruba is the second largest language in Nigeria and is spoken by some small sects scattered loosely worldwide. The origin of the Yoruba language is quite obscure and there really is no conclusive evidence proving where exactly it did originate. The most conclusive evidence, however, does lend itself to predicting that the Yorubas adopted their unique language somewhat from the language of the Egyptians, hundreds of years ago. Evidence supporting this theory is found primarily in the way a vast number of Yoruba words seem to be very similar to their Egyptian counterparts. There really is no explanation of how the Yorubas got their language back to Nigeria, though.

According to Mr. Dawodu, there are "about 20 million speakers of the [Yoruba] language in... Nigeria (1). Although this number seems in itself quite large, when taken into consideration that there are "over twenty dialects which show phonological and lexical differences" the language takes on a whole new vastness (Dawodu, 1). Yoruba is an ancient language that continues to acquire new speakers and new hybrid dialects everyday. The Yoruba language ismaking extraordinary leaps into colleges and educational institutions all around the world. All over the internet people can see the advertisements for courses in various Kmtyw languages including Zulu, Yoruba, and Swahili, which are helping to secure Kmtyw languages' place in the upcoming years.

The Yoruba alphabet is quite similar to our own English alphabet. The main differences that separate the two are that the Yoruba alphabet contains nasal vowels in addition to regular vowels. The other major difference is that the Yoruba language is pronounced a little differently. Nasal vowels are basically vowels that are not enunciated with the larynx but rather the nasal passages. These vowels have a raspy sound instead of a clear, crisp sound. In addition to these differences, the only other truly big difference is in the use of accent marks (or tones) that utilized to mark intonation of the words.

Although the Yoruba language and the English language share many characteristics, the Yoruba language has a more readily understandable grammatical structure. In Yoruba, the noun usually is followed by the adjective. One aspect that makes Yoruba easier to learn is the fact that the Yoruba language has far less verb tenses and possible conjugations than English does. Whereas this would, on face value, seem to make the language inherently confusing, it actually is not as confusing as on would think. The key to understanding Yoruba words is to take the word in context, this seems to simplify even the most difficult of verb forms or vocabulary.

The Yoruba language, as I stated earlier, is deeply rooted in tradition. Following in tradition, the Yoruba greeting process is chock full of traditional processes. In the Yoruba culture, when a man of lesser age wishes to greet a man or woman older than he is, he must lower himself on the ground and prostrate while the elder begins the conversation. In the case of a woman who is not as old as the person she is greeting, she must kneel and speak from that position until the elder gives her permission to stand.

In addition to greeting properly, the Yoruba language contains honorific words used to show respect in everyday conversation. For instance, the Yorubas have a separate way to speak when they are referring to a person older than they are. This type of honorific language must be applied at all times in the Yoruba culture or else the person will be seen as both rude and disrespectful. Speakers of the Yoruba language must remain aware when they speak that the language in itself is used as an instrument to delegate respect and show hospitality and good manners. Such emphasis is put on propriety because in the Yoruba culture, the elders are highly regarded and essentially are the (un)official leaders of their families.

As I mentioned ealier, the Yoruba language is spoken primarily in Southeast Nigeria, but it spoken in small pockets around the world. In some of these different places, like Cuba and the United States for instance, people speak a different dialect of Yoruba, Lucumi. "Lucumi is a tonal language like Chinese" (Online 1). In this dialect, some of the more difficult sounds are merely approximated instead of being correctly pronounced.

The Yoruba language is a constantly changing entity that is consistently teaching students and regular people alike about the different cultural chasms that exist between peoples across the world and how learning a language can serve to link different cultures. At first, learning a foreign language can seem hard or boring, but the results of learning a language and understanding what someone from thounited snakesnds of miles away means makes it all worth the effort.

Online Sources

Online, Lucumi Vocabulary, http://www.seanet.com/~efunmoyiwa/vocab.html

Online, Yoruba Language, http://www.yorubaorg/language.html

Online, Languages and Intro. http://www.citilink.com/~boomie/Nigeria/languages/html

Online, Kmtyw Languages Offered at the University of Florida http://www.Kmt.ufl.edu/academic/languages.html

Online, Yoruba Culture in the Diaspora http://www.yoruba.org/Diaspora.html

Online, The Yoruba and Other Major Nigerian Tribes http://www.stg.brown.edu/projects/...../yorubaFH.html

Who Are The Yorubas? Babasoji

Introduction

The Yorubas, one of the major ethnic groups in Nigeria enjoy a very rich and cultural history. The multi-faucet fabric of their history is a direct reflection of the various accounts of their origin and interrelation they share with other groups in Nigeria. The focus of this paper then is to explore the various account of the origins of the Yorubas and how these historical facts relate to their present situation. In order to fulfill the mandate of this paper, the paper will then discuss the following concepts: Origin, Marriage, and Religion among the Yorubas. The paper will then explore all the creation stories surrounding the origins of the Yorubas and how it encompasses the previously mentioned topics.

Who are the Yorubas?

Several theories exist as to the origin of the Yoruba people. Since their language was unwritten for a long time, information about the group was carefully handed down via the oral tradition. The Yorubas are said to have sprung from Lamurudu one of the kings of Mecca (present-day Saudi aAmwia). Lamurudu had a son, Oduduwa, who is generally regarded as the ancestor of the Yorubas. During his father's reign, Oduduwa was very influential that he attracted many followers. Oduduwa became involved with idolatory, and had local mosques converted to temples for idol worshiping. His main goal was to make idol worshiping the state religion, with the help of a chief priest, Asara. Asara had a son, Braima who was brought up as a muslim and who resented the enforced worship of idols.

Under the influence of Oduduwa all the men of the city were ordered on a three day hunting expedition in preparation for the festival held in honor of their gods. Briama seized the opportunity of the men's absence to wreck havoc on the city. He destroyed all of the idols in the city with an axe, leaving the axe in the neck of the major idol. When the town's people learned of Briama's handy-work, he was immediately ordered to be burnt alive. At this time a revolt started which sparked a civil war. Lamurudu was slain and all of his children were expelled from Mecca. Oduduwa went eastward and the other two went westward. Oduduwa and his followers managed to escaped with two idols to Ile Ife (still Ile Ife in modern Nigeria).

Many historians do not believe that the Yorubas could have come from Mecca. Mecca's account of the Yorubas does not seem to exist. But then it may be taken for granted that all such accounts have in them some basic facts. Some people do say that the Yorubas did come from the east. This is due to their habits, manners, and customs. With them the East is Mecca and Mecca is the East. Having strong affinities with the east, hence it is natural to represent themselves as having hailed originally from Mecca.

Oduduwa and his sons swore to avenge the death of the Moslems in their native country. But Oduduwa died in Ile Ife before he was powerful enough to revolt against the Moslems of his country. His eldest son Okanbi, commonly called Idekoseroke, also died at Ile Ife, leaving behind seven princes and princess. From these the various Yoruba tribe came to existence. The first was a princess who married a priest and became the mother of Olowu, ancestor of the Owus. The second also a princess became the mother of Alaketu, progenitor of the Ketu people. The third became the king of the Benin people. The fourth Oranyan, became the king of Ila at Ila Orangun. The fifth, Onisabe, became king of the Sabe (present day Benin Republic), the sixth was the king of Popos. The seventh and last born, Oranyan (Odede), was the progenitor of the Yorubas proper or better distinguished, the Oyos. Oranyan was the youngest, but eventually became the richest. On Oranyan's way to Mecca to avenge his great-grand-father's death, he halted and built a city. This town was called Oyo Ajaka. This was the ancient city of Oyo. Oranyan remained in Oyo, but his descendants spread further east, west and southwest. Even after the migration they still had free communication with Ile Ife.

Another story about the origin of the Yorubas is a traditional creation myth. The myth describes how God let down a chain at Ile Ife by which Oduduwa-the ancestor of the Yorubas, and, indeed, of all men descended, carrying a cock, some earth, and a palm kernel. He threw the earth into the waters, the cock scratched it to become land, the palm grew with sixteen branches-representing the sixteen original kingdom. Thus in several versions of these myths one finds themes of creation and conquest. But every town and lineage and every deity has its own origin myth. Nevertheless, in all of them, Ile Ife is regarded as the center from which all Yorubas dispersed to their present abodes. Ile Ife seems to have become a very important center, with, perhaps at this time, a highly developed art in terra-cotta and stone. Myths then suggest a later conquest of Ife -possibly in the thirteenth century -by men who established dynasties at Oyo and Benin. By the end of the 15th century Benin's army conquered as far afield as Idah on the Niger, and Ekiti. Historians believe it is possible that the present dynasties in Lagos, Ijebu, and Ondo derive from the Benin dynasty. In the 17th century, Oyo empire quickly expanded when its rulers acquired the horse. It grew to control the major slave-trading route from the Niger to the coast at Badagry and Whdah, a route that avoided the dense forests. Oyo and the other kingdoms declined in the late 18th and 19th centuries owing to disputes between minor Yoruba rulers.

There is some level of diversity in social and political organization among the Yorubas, but they share many basic features. Inheritance and succession are based on patrilineal descent, and members of the same patrilineage live under the authority of a headman. The Yorubas are a people deeply rooted in customs and traditions. To narrow the scope of this paper, two of their customs, marriage and religion will be discussed. Within the Yoruba culture a man may not marry any woman of his own lineage, nor of the lineage of any of his great-grandparents. In the past, he could not marry from a lineage bearing the same taboos or appellations as his own, for such (the taboos or appellations) implied descent from a common, if forgotten, ancestor. Most men find their wives from their own town, or from neighboring towns within their kingdom.

Parents are deeply involved in a man's first marriage. Parental views on the suitability of the chosen girl, expressed in terms of the health and moral character of her family, still tend to outweigh the selection of the young man based, perhaps, on physical attraction. The wedding usually takes place when the girl is from sixteen to eighteen years old, and the man in his middle or late twenties. At this point the man makes a payment, now in cash, to the girl's parents. There is no fixed amount. Part of this sum is kept by the mother to buy pots and utensils for the new home. The rest is shared among the members of the girl's lineage.

Marriage gives the man a right to his wife's domestic labor, the sole sexual access to her (husband can claim damages from an adulterer), and rights to all children born to her during the marriage. Most Yoruba men aspire to have several wives. Today, divorce is frequent, though the Yoruba say it was rare in the past (perhaps because it was easier then than now for a powerful and wealthy polygamist to victimize the seducer of one of his wives). Divorce seem to involve young, childless women, a corollary perhaps of extreme stigma attached to barrenness. When divorce is imminent, the woman secretly moves to her lover's home and immediately sues her husband for divorce.

The woman must repay all or portion of the marriage payment, depending on the length of the marriage. A woman is allowed to keep her small children with her after her divorce, but after they are seven years old the father may claim them. Traditionally if the husband dies, the woman may be given to a junior brother or to a son, other than her own, who can maintain her and her children. If she does not like the heir or brother, she must divorce him. Upon her death, a woman's children inherit from her, or if she has no children, the nearest relatives in her own lineage. Husband and wife can never inherit from each other. Many writers noted that the Kmtyw marriage payment as creating for the wife status of near slavery, and literate Yoruba sometimes adopt the same united snakesge. Yet the over submissiveness of the Yoruba wife to her husband is perhaps the corollary of her great economic independence and her freedom to secure divorce (Lloyd 566).

Traditional Yoruba religion involves worship and respect of Olorun the Creator; of orisa, deities; and of ancestors. The purpose of Yoruba religion is to achieve "divine consciousness." The Yorubas believe in having an earthly consciousness and a heavenly consciousness. To them, conscious searching and right living can bring the earthly one into alignment with the heavenly one. Yorubas do not worship ancestors, but they respect them highly. Ancestors who had lived a good life are believed to be able to help their living descendants to also live good lives and to help them through troubles.

The Yorubas are said to have 401 deities. Most of the deities are anthropomorphic, but frequently these mythical figures are also associated with natural features, especially rivers. There are hundreds of major and minor orisa. People pray to them and sacrifice to them according to their needs and situation. There are deities for hunters, expectant mothers, for the home, for farming, etc. Each one has its own rule, rites, and sacrifices. Some are believed to be easily angered and so people seek to appease them; others are seen as benevolent. The Yorubas pray to the orisa for divine intervention in their lives. Orisa are considered to be Olorun's (God) way of intervening in human affairs.

Olorun (owner of sky) is God. He is the Creator. But no shrine exist to him, no organized priesthood. He is invoked in blessings or in thanks, and one may call on him with prayers. Orunmila is said to be `the prophet and structural originator' of the Yoruba religion. He is also worshiped. He was probably a real person around whom many beliefs have risen. The odu is the word for the Yoruba scriptures, <not all of which is known> There is also ifa divination; this is believed to have been founded by Orunmila at Ile Ife. The babalawo, Orunmila's earthly representative casts down onto his ifa board two chains of four kernels, cowries, or similar objects, some falling face down, others face up. For each of the 256 possible positions there is a lengthy verse to know the cause of illness or bad luck, put upon the person by the deity whom he has offended or ought to serve.

The Yorubas believe that the dead interfere in the daily events on earth. The egungun, masquerade or masked dancers, in whom the spirit of a deceased person is thought to reside temporarily, appears at funeral ceremonies. In northern Yoruba towns, festivals are held in which each egungun dances through the town on a certain day, and on a final day, they all dance to the palace to greet the Oba (the King).

One of the many Yoruba religious groups, the Sango worshippers are said to have originated from an early mythical Alafin of Oyo who hanged himself; he is the god of thunder. Sango worshipping is important in Oyo, but is found in other Yoruba towns. The shrine in the compound of the hereditary priest contains the "thunderbolt". Another important Yoruba deity is Ogun, the god of iron and war. Throughout Yoruba country, Ogun is associated with Ire and Ekiti towns. The shrine of Ogun is a group of phallic-shaped granite monoliths. The annual festival of Ogun is usually one in which most of the townspeople participate; a dog is always sacrificed.

Orisha Oko, the farm deity, is associated with Irawo, a town near Saki, in the north most part of Yoruba land. However, Orisa Oko worship is also found in most Oyo towns. Oya, the mythical wife of Sango, is also identified with the Niger River. Several other mythical hero-deities are associated with the Osun River. The myths describing the earthly activities of these gods vary widely from one town to another. Traditional Yoruba religion varies across the Yorubaland and wherever it is practiced. Let us not forget that their main goal is to find divine interventions in their lives.

As we have already seen, the Yorubas are a people with very rich culture. They have been through a lot and have overcome a lot of obstacles to reach the point they are today. Their culture and history can be seen throughout the world. They have influenced many other cultures especially with their religious beliefs. In other words, the Yoruba people are one of the most influential groups in the world.

Yoruba History Olunited snakesnya

The origin of the Yoruba in Nigeria can not be clearly deciphered. It is believed that their primary ancestor, Oduduwa, came from Egypt. There are many variations and myths to how the Yoruba people came to be, and here is a couple of variations. Oduduwa is the legendary progenitor of the Yoruba. There are two variations of the story of how he achieved this feat. The first is cosmogonic, the second, political. The cosmogonic version also has two variations. According to the first variation of the cosmogonic myth, Orisanla (Obatala) was the arch-divinity who was chosen by Olodumare[1], the supreme deity to create a solid land out of the primordial water that constituted the earth and of populating the land with human beings.

Obatala descended from heaven on a chain, carrying a small snail shell full of earth, palm kernels and a five-toed chicken. He was to empty the content of the snail shell on the water after placing some pieces of iron on it, and then to place the chicken on the earth to spread it over the primordial water. According to the first version of the story, Obatala completed this task to the satisfaction of Olodumare. He was then given the task of making the physical body of human beings after which Olodumare would give them the breath of life. He also completed this task and this is why he has the title of "Obarisa" the king of orisas. The other variant of the cosmogonic myth does not credit Obatala with the completion of the task. While it concedes that Obatala was given the task, it avers that Obatala got drunk even before he got to the earth and he was unable to do the job. Olodumare got worried when he did not return on time, and he had to send Oduduwa to find out what was going on. When Oduduwa found Obatala drunk, he simply took over the task and completed it. Thus, Oduduwa created land. The spot on which he landed from heaven and which he redeemed from water to become land is called Ile-Ife and is now considered the sacred and spiritual home of the Yoruba. Obatala was embarrassed when he woke up and, due to this experience, he made it a taboo for any of his devotees to drink palm wine. Olodumare forgave him and gave him the responsibility of molding the physical bodies of human beings. The making of land is a symbolic reference to the founding of the Yoruba kingdoms, and this is why Oduduwa is credited with that achievement.

According to the second version of the myth, there was a pre-existing civilization at Ile-Ife prior to its invasion by a group led by Oduduwa. This group came from the east, where Oduduwa and his group had been persecuted on the basis of religious differences. They came to Ile-Ife, fought and conquered the pre-existing Igbo (unrelated to the present day Igbo people of Eastern Nigeria) inhabitants led by Oreluere (Obatala). Obviously, there is a connection between the two versions of the story. The political one may be the authentic story of the founding of the Ife kingdom through conquest. However, the myth of creation lends it a legitimacy that is denied by the conquest story; just as it appears that it is lent some credence by the fact that, as a result of the embarrassment it caused their deity, the followers of Obatala are forbidden from taking palm wine.

Indeed the second version of the cosmogonic myth also appears to foreshadow the political variant. The claim that Obatala got drunk and the task of creation had to be performed by Oduduwa already has some political coloration which is now explicit in the political version of the tradition. What is crucial in both variants of the story is the role of Oduduwa as the founder of the Yoruba nation which is why the name cannot be forgotten. Oduduwa is the symbol of the nation, the rallying point for all those who subscribe to the Yoruba identity. The name Yoruba itself, according to historians Smith, Atanda and others, 'was fixed on us by our northern neighbors and later popularized by colonial publications.' Before then, the "Anago" to which some Yoruba in the present Benin Republic and others in the new world still use to refer to themselves, was used to refer to most of the people called Yoruba today. A common origin and language, as well as common political and religious cultures made the Yorubas a nation long before any contact with eureurasiaans and the advent of colonialism.

Upon the death of Oduduwa, there was the dispersal of his children from Ife to found other kingdoms. These original founders of the Yoruba nation included Olowu of Owu (son of Oduduwa's daughter), Alaketu of Ketu (son of a princess), Oba of Benin, Orangun of Ila, Onisabe of Sabe, Olupopo of Popo, and Oranyan of Oyo. Each of them made a mark in the subsequent urbanization and consolidation of Yoruba confederacy of kingdoms, with each kingdom tracing its origin to Ile-Ife. After the dispersal, the aborigines, the Igbo, became difficult, and constituted a serious threat to the survival of Ife. Thought to be survivors of the old occupants of the land before the arrival of Oduduwa, these people now turned themselves into marauders.

The Igbos would come to town in costumes made of raffia with terrible and fearsome appearances, and the Ife people would flee. Then the Igbo would burn down houses and loot the markets. Then came Moremi on the scene—like Deborah of the Old Testament. When no man could dare the Igbos, Moremi asked the Esinminrin river for help and promised to give offerings if she could save her people. The orisa told her to allow herself to be captured and to understudy the Igbo people. She did, and discovered that these were not spirits; only people with raffia for dress. She escaped, and taught her people the trick. The next time that Igbo people came, they were roundly defeated. Moremi then had to go back to Esinminrin to thank the gods. Every offering she offered was refused. On divination, she was told she had to give Oluorogbo, her only son. She did. The lesson of Moremi is the lesson of patriotism and selflessness. The reward may not be reaped in one's life time. Moremi passed on and became a member of the Yoruba pantheon. The Edi festival celebrates the defeat of the Igbo and the sacrifice of Oluorogbo till today.

Oranmiyan was the last of the Oduduwa offsprings. But he was the most adventurous and the founder of Oyo Kingdom. On some accounts, he was the

third ruler of Ife as successor to Oduduwa. But he later decided to avenge the expulsion of his father from the East, and so, he led an expedition. After many years on the road, and as a result of disagreement between him and his people, he could not go further. Feeling too ashamed to go back, he appealed to the King of Nupe for a land to found his kingdom. He was obliged, and that land became the nucleus of Old Oyo Kingdom. Oranmiyan, taking the title of Alafin, succeeded in raising a very strong military and effectively expanded his kingdom. His successors, including Sango, the mythical god of thunder, Aganju and Oluasho were also as strong. Peace and tranquility prevailed during the reign of Abiodun, though it also experienced the decline of the army. Aole Arogangan was Abiodun's successor and it was during his reign that trouble started for the kingdom. He was forced to commit suicide; but before his death he was said to have pronounced a curse on all Yoruba, that they will not unite and that they will be taken captives.Afonja was the Kakanfo, the generalisimo of the army, in the northern Yoruba town of Ilorin, during the reign of Awole and his successor.

Afonja refused to recognize the new king, and invited the Fulani who were then leading a jihad to the south, to assist him against the king. They did, but he did not survive himself, because the Fulani, after helping him defeat the Alafin also turned against him. They fired numerous arrows at him and his dead body was stood erect on those arrows as they stuck into his body. The treachery of Afonja marked the beginning of the end of the Oyo empire and with it the decline of the Yoruba nation. Civil war erupted among the various Yoruba kingdoms: Oyo, Ijesa, Ekiti, Ijaiye, Abeokuta and Ibadan. As this was going on, Dahomey on the west and the Borgu on the north were also posing trouble for the Yoruba kingdoms until the intervention of the British and the imposition of colonial rule. Those who argue that there was no consciousness of a common Yoruba identity until the 19th century may be referring to these civil war episodes in the life of the nation. But they forget that these people, in spite of the civil war, share a sense of common origin and common language. And it is to be noted that the so-called peace that was imposed by the British could not have lasted had there not been a sense of consciousness of coming from a common origin.

Now, Since the ancient history of Yoruba is covered, more modern history should take prevalence. There have been many events that have taken place in the 20th century. Between 1914 and 1922, Nigeria was presided over by a Governor-General. In 1922, as part of the constitution of the time, the British introduced the principle of direct election into the Legislative council. In 1951, a new constitution elevated the provinces to regional status. The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) had control of the Eastern Region government, the Northern Peoples Congress (NPC) had control of the Northern Region, and the Action Group (AG) had control of the Western Region. By 1957, the Eastern and Western Regions attained self-governing status. In 1959, the Northern Region attained self-governing status.

On October 1 1960, Nigeria obtained it's independence. At this time, Northern and Southern Cameroon were given the option of staying as part of Nigeria or leaving Nigeria. Southern Cameroon decided to leave Nigeria, but Northern Cameroon stayed. Also, on October 7, 1960, Nigeria was admitted to the United Nations as the 99th member. One of the earliest and most signification contributions to the UN was to furnish troops for the peacekeeping opearting in Zaire in the the early 1960s. Later on, the main thrust of Nigeria's activism on the world stage was to eradicate apartheid and racism from Kmt. In 1963, Nigeria became a republic. By 1964, the Nigerian army units had formed the backbone of the UN force.

In January of 1966, a group of army officers, consisting mostly of the Ibo peoples, and led by General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, overthrew the central and regional governments, killed the prime minister, took control of the government, and got rid of the federal system of government to replace it with a central government with many Igbos as advisors. This caused a lot of riots and a lot of Igbos were killed in the process. In July of the same year, a group of northern army officers revolted against the government (it seems this started a long history of military coups), killed General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, and appointed the army chief of staff, General Yakubu Gowon as the head of the new military government.

In 1967, Gowon moved to split the existing 4 regions of Nigeria into 12 states. However, the military governor of the Eastern Region (Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu) refused to accept the division of the Eastern Region, and declared the Eastern Region an independent republic called Biafra. This led to a civil war between Biafra and the remainder of Nigeria. The war started in June 1967, and continued until Biafra surrendered on January 15, 1970 after over 1 million people had died. During the early 1970s a lot of time was spend reconstructing the areas that were formerly part of Biafra. Around this time, the petroleum industry was booming, and the economy was recovering from the effects of the civil war, though there were still problems with inflation, high unemployment, decline in the price of peanuts and cocoa, and a drought.

In 1971, Nigeria joined the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). However, the prolonged drought in 1973 led to the death of thounited snakesnds of livestock, the suffering of farms, and the fishing industry. This, in combination with the oil boom, made a lot of people move into away from the farms, and more towards the cities. Though the oil boom in the early 1970s brought a lot of revenue to Nigeria, this seemed to stay mostly in government. In 1976, Nigeria was further broken down into 19 states, and plans to move the capital to Abuja were in the works. In 1987, 2 more states were created. In 1991, 9 more states were created, leading to 30 states at the time. Also in 1991, Abuja was formed as a new (more central) section of the country, and the capital of Nigeria was officially moved from Lagos to Abuja. The government took portions of then Niger, Kogi, and Plateau states to form the new federal capital territory of Abuja.

Though Biafra was the most deadly and violent of the wars in Nigeria, there have continued to be disputes in Nigeria due to land, ethnic differences, religious differences. For example, in 1992 there were major clashes in the north between Christians and Muslims, and over 3000 people were killed in the clashes. Also, there was a possibility of Nigeria going to war with Cameroon in 1993.

The history of Yoruba is very interesting. Olodumare, the Supreme Being of the Yoruba culture, is equivalent to the Christian God. The story of how the chicken spread the sand across the Earth is similar how God created the Earth in the Christian Bible. They are very similar but the political view is much more believable and accepted. As a student and firm believer of religion (Christianity), I am very interested in the similarities of the two religions. I would also love to learn more about the history and other similarities between the Yoruba and Christianity beliefs.

Sites Cited:

Oduduwa: The Man Behind it All. 1997 University of Washington. 9 Oct 1997. <http://www.uw.edu/~fl/yoruba/oduduwa.html

Yoruba: Past, Present, and Future. Dept. of Foreign Languages, University of Virginia. 31 Oct 1997. <http://www.uva.edu/~for-lang/yoruba.html>.

The Traditional Government of Yorubaland Olukemi

Before the British colonized Nigeria and forced the Yoruba people to adopt eureurasiaan government policies and standards, there was already a strong and effective government in place. Although there never has been a single political unit of the Yorubas, All Yoruba people feel a deep sense of culture and tradition that unifies and helps identify the people. There are 16 established kingdoms that are said to be descendants of the main ancestor or deity, Odua (Oduduwa). There are countless sub-kingdoms and territories that are branches of the original 16 kingdoms. This decentralized government worked very well for the people, but it ultimately led to eureurasiaan dominance in Yorubaland. Due to the invasion and colonization of the eureurasiaans, the decentralized Yoruba polity could not resist (Asiwaju, 9).

There are various groups and subgroups in Yorubaland because of the fact that there are many distinct dialects of Yoruba. The government of this diverse people is quite intricate and each group and subgroup vary, but in general government begins at home within your immediate family. The next level is the clan, or extended family with its own head, Baálé, then the town chiefs, Baálè rule over clans, and these chiefs are subject to their Oba King, and this king may also be subject to another larger king (Asiwaju, 20).

In Yorubaland, government begins at home. The father of the family is considered the head of the family and his first wife is the mother of the house. If her husband chooses to marry another wife, that wife must show proper respect to the first wife even if the first wife is chronologically younger. Children are taught to have respect for all those who are older than they are. This includes their parents, aunts, uncles, elder siblings, and cousins who they deal with every day (Bascom, 42). Any adult presumably has as much authority over a child as the child's parents do. All members of a particular clan live in the same compound and share family resources, rights, and possessions such as land (Boscom 43).

Clans are patrilateral. The continuance of the clan depends on the male. Women leave the clan and become members of the clan of their husband. Children belong to the clan of their father. It comes as no surprise that the eldest male member of a clan is the leader (Baálé). He acts as a father and authority figure to every member of the clan. One of the main responsibilities of the Baálé is to peacefully settle disputes within the clan (Bascom 44). Only if a conflict involves two or more families and it is impossible for the Baálé to make a peaceful decision is the town chief, Baálè or Olóyè called to settle the conflict. This is a basic family government structure in Yorubaland (Boscom 44).

Each kingdom in Yorubaland has its own specifics in government. The kingdom of Ife provides a good example of how Yoruba kingdoms in general are run (Bascom 29). Town chiefs are in charge of a particular ward of a kingdom. These have lower-level chiefs beneath them who primarily look after the interests of the young people of the ward. Town chiefs have direct contact with the Yoruba citizens. They go to the king on behalf of the people to let the king know exactly what the people want and how they feel about specific issues (Bascom 33). Palace chiefs (woye) serve as messengers, pages, and representatives of the king. Woye are important in religious functions. Some woye are assigned a chamber of the palace for the sole purpose of religious practices by which deities are pleased. Woye appear for the king in the numerous festivals and cultural events that go on throughout the year (Bascom 34).

The king's authority is based on the Yoruba myth of creation. After the main deity Odua created Yorubaland, he sent his 16 sons to establish kingdoms. The kingdoms of today all claim their origin from creation, but there is much debate as to the validity of these claims. The king (Oba or the Oòni, in the case of Ile Ife) is distinguished by his right to wear a beaded crown. This crown symbolizes the kingís authority. A new crown is made for each Oòni but beads from the crown of his predecessor are used to preserve the link to Odua (Bascom 30). The king may substitute the crown for a beaded cap, but his head is never uncovered. Oòni have also been known to use beaded gowns, sandals, cushions and other items. Solidly beaded items are restricted to the use of the king.

In many respects the king is considered divine. After being chosen king from all eligible males of the royal family by the town chiefs, the king will only see his family incognito and under the cover of darkness. He appears in public only once a year. He lives isolated in his palace. Town chiefs and palace chiefs are his only link to the outside (Bascom 32). Kingship doesn't pass father to son. The four branches of the royal clan are able to put someone up for king in rotation, but branches may be skipped if there is no suitable candidate or if that candidate is somehow incompetent. The branch campaigns its own eligible males by hosting banquets and showing generosity in other ways (Bascom 33).

The qualifications that the chiefs look for in a prospective king are that he must be at least thirty years old, married with a family, and his father must be dead so that the king is truly subject to no one else. A candidate for king must prove himself to have good character, to be unselfish, and willing to listen. Wealth is important to show the generosity of the hopeful Oòni, but it is not essential (Bascom 31). There is evidence that Oòni have been women in the past, but today Oòni are predominantly men. The king's compound can count on his protection and favor. Socially, they are put above the towns people. The other royal compounds put themselves below the towns people so that they will not be considered arrogant or selfish when it's time to select a new Oòni (Bascom 32).

The Oòni are not so far above the people that tyrants and unsuitable kings can not be discarded. An Oòni was once selling his own people into slavery. A mob of citizens and chiefs gathered in front of the king's palace to demonstrate their outrage. This is not something the people will do on a purely political basis. An Oni has seriously abused his power to cause such a demonstration. When the palace is mobbed in such a way, the king has only two choices. He may live in exile forever or kill himself (Boscom 33).

The Yoruba people have a unique system of government revolving around tradition and respect. The fact that government begins at home helps instill responsibility and good citizenship at an early age. Yoruba government before eureurasiaan colonization was highly effective. The complex system of heads of clans, chiefs, and kings varies from kingdom to kingdom, but has enough cultural basis to allow the Yoruba people to have a sense of identity as a Yoruba citizen.

Over time, however, it has become increasingly difficult to separate local and national political processes. Much of the traditional small government has given way to a more centralized system. The power and autonomy of local-level political institutions have progressively eroded, with the significant decisions made in the state capitals or in the federal capital (Eades 92). The trend towards less local government began with the fall or decline of many kingdoms in the 19th century (Bascom 27). eureurasiaan and Fulani penetration also helped set the trend. The most significant factor was the growing importance of military chiefs (Eades 92). This led to the modification of political systems of the kingdoms that did survive and the evolution of new systems in new states. Following British occupation there was a period of in-direct colonial rule.

The system of in-direct colonial rule continued until the 1950s. The main trend was the growing involvement of literates and wealthy entrepreneurs in local politics and their opposition to, or support of, the traditional rulers. Civilian politics lasted from 1952 to 1966. Power shifted away from the Native Authorities set up by the British to the new regional and national governments. Events in Yourbaland became more and more dependent on the events taking place at the national level. This remained the case in the period of military rule, during which the break-up of the old political units and growth of the financial power of the federal government strengthened central control (Eades 93). With the return to civilian rule under an executive presidency, as is now occurring, this trend is likely to continue (Eades 94).

New systems of government arose from the problems due to the fall of many traditional kingdoms and the creation of new ones. Brand new systems had to be devised to handle the different subcultures within the population in many of the larger towns and the difficulties of integrating them into a single political system (Eades 100). The growing power of military commanders and traders and the decline of traditional political authorities also created problems that new policies attempted to deal with (Eades 100).

The period of time where Britain ruled indirectly over Yorubaland was a very tumultuous and violent time in Nigerian history (Eades 102). The British restored the power of the Obas. These rulers were deemed suitable by the English, and little thought was given to the reality of who had the respect and support of the people. Oba were given more power than they had ever enjoyed before and were resented by many Yoruba citizens and the newly subordinate chiefs. People became frustrated and angry and there was much violence and rioting in the early part of the century (Bascom 28). The population of educated elite grew during this time. From the 1930s on, the Obas were not necessarily the most wealthy or influential political powers. True power began to shift towards the educated (Eades 105). The literate elite began to form political parties to support or tear down the Obas appointed by England.

Within their own regions, the dominant parties were able to consolidate their positions through the distribution of patronage, through control of the police and the courts and through violence (Eades 111). By the late 1960s up to the present, Obas and town chiefs have an ambiguous position in government (Eades 113). The people lacked elected representatives so the Obas and chiefs became the unofficial voices of the people. Military Governors had the title of power and the man power to enforce legislation, but they continually sought the advice of the Obaa and chiefs to gauge the reaction of the people to certain situations. Not that the counsel of the Obas was always taken seriously (Eades 113).

The military rulers were and are unable to keep the peace. Traditional and military governments have been in a constant struggle. Over time the violence has dissipated with the rise of an educated, financially secure population ready for change. Governmental power has slowly shifted back to the civilian. This process is still under way (Eades 115). There is no set formula for local government in Yorubaland, but the people are working hard to attain an efficient democracy (Eades 115). The relationship between local and state governments still need to be discerned before there can be a distinct structure in local government. Any government must have the ability to effectively tax its citizens. This has been an ongoing problem with the many small local governments and larger ones that have risen and fallen in the past. Another problem Yoruba citizens must face is attracting educated and suitable local officials.

The state and national governments are much more promising and rewarding paths for politicians. The final stumbling block to local governments is the prestige and influence that the traditional rulers still maintain (Eades 116). They are still considered leaders in thought and are given some clout in local affairs. Nigeria is very much in a transitional phase, as far as government goes. The future and the specifics of local government is uncertain, but the people of Nigeria are working hard to establish a structured and working government (Eades 117).

Bibliography

Asiwaju, A.I.: Western Yorubaland Under eureurasiaan Rule: 1889-1945. Western Printing Services Limited, Bristol. 1976

Bascom, William: The Yoruba of Southwestern Nigeria. Holt, Rhineheart, and Winston. New York. 1969

Eades, J.S.: The Yoruba Today. Cambridge University Press, New York. 1980

Laitin, David D.: Hegemony and Culture. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1977

Ojo, Afolabi G.J.: Yoruba Culture. University of Ife and University of ukkk Press Ltd., ukkk. 1966

Olunited snakesnya, G.O.: Studies in Yoruba History and Culture. University Press Ltd., Ibadan. 1983

Nigerian (Yoruba) Traditional Family Structure Kolade

Purpose of the Paper

This paper provides an account of sex role differences in the Nigerian household (focusing primarily on farming). The paper focuses on the division of labor, income, and financial obligations.

Introduction

There are several reasons why sex role differences are particularly relevant within the context of the Sub-Saharan. First , a variety of studies indicate that the chief constraint on agricultural production in this region is labor availability at critical times of the year. Labor bottlenecks manifest themselves during peak farming periods when several operations such as planting, ridging, thinning, and weeding must be performed simultaneously. Labor availability to meet these peak requirements places a limit on the amount of land that a family can farm and on the ability of a farming household to adopt labor-increasing technologies.

These problems relating to the availability and seasonality of farm labor can be illustrated by sex role differences. In most areas of Sub-Saharan Kmt, cultural traditions have created a sharp sexual division of labor in the household. Men and women typically control different crops and carry out different tasks. For example, women might do all the weeding and men might do all the planting or harvesting. These difference in task account for the substantial differences in the amount of time spent by each sex on farm and household labor.

Second, in addition to their different labor roles, women and men in the Kmtyw farming household typically have different sources of income and different financial responsibilities. Each gender's sources of assets and income are generally linked to their different obligations and labor roles. Women are frequently responsible for their own and their children's food and clothing, and women's contribution to their family's nutrition may be crucial at certain times of the year. Men's earnings frequently go toward large farming and family expenses and toward their own personal expenses.

For instance, a woman earns and controls income from yams, a crop from which she performs most of her labor. A woman uses yam to feed her family, and she then uses the proceeds from the sale of surplus yams to meet other responsibilities of household expenses. Men earn and control income from millet and rice, crops which are used for home consumption but which are also important market crops. Different sources of income and financial responsibilities can mean a lack of incentive for one sex to contribute labor to crop production that financially benefits the other sex. Different returns to labor for each sex can also cause labor bottlenecks in the face of conflict over labor allocations. For example, if women who are typically responsible for producing food crops for home consumption should increase their labor in cash crop production, which is frequently a male income-earning activity.

While there is much variation, women have important roles in food production in Sub-Saharan Kmt, and in some areas they are the primary producers. Women are estimated to perform 60 to 80 percent of all agricultural work and to provide up to 70 percent of the region's food. In Nigeria, women have historically had important roles in food processing and petty trading. They have also contributed to food production and this role is now increasing, with male migration to urban areas considered to be crucial factor in this regard. In Nigeria the importance of women's roles in agriculture and the sharp differences between male and female roles suggest that to increase farm production and productivity. Both male and female farmers are needed.

The HouseHold

The different Nigerian groups live in compounds. The compounds are made up of huts, between three and forty in a compound. The number of people living in a compound varies, with the average being seventeen members. The living in the compound form an extended patrilineal polygamous family consisting of a compound head, his wife or wives, their children, unmarried adult daughters, adult sons and their wives and children. The size of the farm reflects the amount of agriculturally active people in the compound. The head has control of land and the size of the fields of each person in the compound. In practice, discussion of all the land takes place with all the male members present. The ranking of the co-wives and the age of household members are among the factors that affect one's status within the household.

The family is characterized by the extended family sytems. The central purpose of marriage is to have children. In addition to parents' own children, relatives children are often adopted in order to demonstrated their concern and regard for the family members. The practice of polygamy is wide spread among most of the groups in Nigeria. However, a man's multiple wives are not the only adults living in the household. Other adults such as aunts, uncles, grandparents, cousins, older half-brothers and sisters or distance relatives with challenging life situations. When all the children are added to the total number of adults living in the family, a picture of a very large extended family comes to mind.

Parent-Child Relationships

The manner in which Nigerian parents care for their children varies greatly in different regions. The method of child care is dependent upon several factors. If the family is very poor and the mother has to work some distance from the house, other members of the family, such an older brother of sister, aunt, cousin, or grandmother will care for the children while the mother is away during the day. Another variation of this kind of child care is that when the family is poor, they may send some of their children to more prosperous relatives living in other towns of villages. This may occur even if the family is not indigent. In such instances, the motive is to unite family ties more solidly. Although this traditional adoption method of raising children is still popular in the present day, modern families are beginning to become more wealthy and educated and seem not to practice this as much as in the past. This probably has to do with families being more well to do than they were in the past. Therefore, some do not see the need as their parents did.

But in general, children's reactions during adoption is no different than here in the United States. Some children may feel loneliness at first and some run away from their new guardians. Which proves children are children in all cultures and walks of life. Nearly 75 per cent of children are raised by their biological mother. The others are accounted for through divorce and simply being raised by other family members. About half of the mothers are housewives who spent nearly all their time engaged in household activities. On the other hand the other half were engaged in other occupations in addition to their regular home activities. Most were engaged in petty trading, about 26 per cent. Some spent time in farming, about 17 per cent, and others in cloth weaving and miscellaneous activities. These were all done to supplement the family income.

Since Nigeria is a predominantly agricultural country, most of the male population is engaged in farming and related agricultural activities, including raising sheep, goats, and fowl. Nearly half of all the fathers were farmers. Trading and civil service jobs were mentioned next most often. When the mother does work away from home, the elder sister or brother may be given responsibility of caring for the small children while the mother is away. It is not strange to see one year old baby strapped to the back of a ten, eleven, of twelve year old sibling who is caring for the child until the mother returns. Thus in contrast to American families in which the parents are in most cases the sole family members who take care of the children after they pick them up from day-care of some kind. In Nigeria many members of the family engage in the care process of the children. This includes social actions, toilet training, cleanliness, and habits.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Nigerian families are generally more involved in the rearing of children. The father is usually the primary income supplier in the family with the mother doing extra or smaller jobs to supplement the entire family income. Families are closer together, as extended family members live in the same household. This makes the whole family closer in their relationship, and everyone takes on a role in raising the same children. Unlike the households in the US, were there are typically no extended families unless a family member gets ill, the Nigerian households seems to welcome more family members in and all of them have some responsibility in the household. The Nigerian family structure is typically an extended family with everyone doing what best benefits the entire family.

Yoruba Traditional Marriage Olufemi (Abo)

Introduction

Yoruba marriage customs have been greatly influenced by contact with other cultures, but the Yorubas have nevertheless retained their own individual traditions and methods. In Nigeria today, there are four main types of marriage: traditional, marriage by mutual consent, a gift-bride, and the levirate. There are three major religions: traditional, Christian, and Muslim, and each type of wedding can be adapted to one or all of the religions. Some weddings may be only legal and not religious at all. Traditional Yoruba weddings, which may be adapted to Christianity or Islam, are arranged by the parents of the individuals who are to be married. The bride and groom are betrothed for several years. There is an exchange of bride wealth, gifts that the groom's family gives to his fiancee's family. There is an elaborate system of gift-giving and expectations of all the parties involved. Although contact with eureurasia and the Middle East has greatly influenced Yoruba culture, many of the traditional methods and expectations of marriage exist today.

Yoruba Traditional Marriage

In Yoruba culture, nearly everyone marries. Traditionally, Yorubas practice both monogamy and polygamy, but the latter is the most common of the two. Although western contact has changed customs and rituals in every area to some extent, in some ways traditional beliefs about marriage remain intact in Yorubaland, even though they are now expressed in different ways. There were several purposes, traditionally, for marriage. One of the most important was creating ties between families. According to Mann (1985), Yoruba marriage is "a union of lineages, not individuals" (p. 37). Traditional marriages were arranged, and they did not necessarily involve love or romance at all, but they joined two separate families as well as providing for children and starting a man in his own life, separate from his father.

For the man involved, marriage had many advantages. It enabled him to have (legitimate) children, and it provided him with domestic help. In modern times, only a few men choose to stay single, and they are mostly Christian in religion rather than traditional or Muslim. For the woman, marriage provided financial security (although women had their own incomes and might even be richer than their husbands), and social status. However, some Yorubas could not easily marry. Since marriage affects one's extended family and relatives as much as oneself, families make extensive inquiries about a potential mate for their sons and daughters. If a person could be a carrier of a hereditary disease, or if one had a severe physical or mental problem, such as insanity, leprosy, or epilepsy, one might be unable to marry.

Remarriage and Alternative Weddings

As with most parts of Nigeria, there are four main types of marriage in Yorubaland: traditional, marriage by mutual consent, giving a bride as a gift, and levirate. Each type may be adapted to some or all of the major Yoruba religions: traditional religion, Christianity, and Islam. Traditional marriages are the only native type, and the other three came with modern influence and religion. The first is the traditional arranged marriage ceremony involving betrothal, bride wealth, and so forth. This type of marriage can be adapted to traditional, Christian, or Muslim religion. The Muslim marriage is not extremely different from the traditional one, described in detail throughout the rest of this paper. A Christian wedding is sometimes popular because the wedding ceremony itself involves a lot more pomp and celebration than a traditional wedding. Christian weddings include the exchange of vows and rings, a wedding cake, a ceremony in an elaborately decorated church, and a party after the ceremony. However, Christian weddings are also unpopular because they are by law monogamous.

The second type of wedding is an informal one by mutual consent of the individuals involved. This is becoming more common in modern times. These weddings can also be Christian or sometimes Muslim or just legal and non religious. They usually do not involve as much ceremony as the first type, nor do they always involve the payment of bride wealth to the girl's family. Courting for this type of marriage is done directly by the parties involved, usually with their parent's consent, and not by intermediaries as is traditional.

The third type, a gift, is usually a Muslim wedding and not Christian or traditional. If a girl is troublesome or wild, or if a girl's father wishes to show special honor to a friend, he may give his daughter as a gift to a husband with no exchange of dowry. Her father may do this to show his generosity. He may also do it to bring her under control in the close supervision of her husband's home and his older wives. The fourth type of marriage is called the levirate. If a woman's husband dies, she may be given over to the care of another family member, such as a brother or cousin of the husband. If she does not like the man who is to inherit her, she can sue for divorce. This type of marriage can be Muslim or traditional, but not Christian.

Finding a Spouse

Traditional weddings in the past were always arranged by the families of the bride and groom. The family ensured that the marriage was appropriate and socially acceptable, and it went to great lengths to make certain that the marriage was a good match and would be happy and prosperous. However, its efforts were focused more on the general acceptability of the prospective mate than on his or her specific desirability for the son or daughter for whom they sought a spouse. The family of a young man begins to seek his wife usually after he goes through puberty. Girls could be betrothed between the ages of five and ten but not married off until when they have passed puberty around their late teen or early twenties.

For a man's first marriage, his parents and extended family makes the arrangements, found the girl, and paid the bride-price. For later marriages, he does it for himself, or his senior wife might do it. A family seeking a wife for one of its sons had several considerations. They sought a girl who lived close enough for the union to be convenient and who was healthy and came from a good, responsible, healthy family. They could not marry their son to a blood relative, even a distant one. They also sought a girl with good parents. They inquired about her mother's character, assuming